Meanwhile, in the long run, former child workers have lower human capital because of less time spent on learning during the childhood (Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2018).
Posso (2019) and Nelson and Quiton (2018) also found adverse effects of child labor on children’s health. In the shape of weak economic growth, it causes malnutrition, incidence of infectious diseases, higher system-specific diseases, behavioral and emotional disorders, and decreased coping abilities (ability to solve problems and adapt to changes) of the child labor. (2019), child workers are documented to be detrimental to their health. Of the 25 studies reviewed by Ibrahim et al. However, more evidence of the negative impact of child labor on the economy has been found. There has been evidence of adverse impacts of child labor on the economy, such as the findings by Kambhampati and Rajan (2006) and Swaminathan (1998). Thus, continuing efforts need to be made to reduce the occurrence of child labor in the economy if it could not be fully eliminated. However, what needs our attention is that the number of Indonesian child workers is still large, which is bad for both the short- and the long-term future. The ILO estimation methods and surveys conducted by Central Bureau of Statistics, Republic of Indonesia, may differ, and whether the percentage of Indonesian child labor is above or below the global average may also be inappropriate. Meanwhile, based on the 2018 National Labor Force Survey (Central Bureau of Statistics, the Republic of Indonesia, 2018), Indonesian child labor for the four years, from 2011 to 2014 was 4.23%, 4.17%, 2.85%, and 2.77%., respectively. The percentage of Indonesian child labor was 2.99% (Central Bureau of Statistics, Republic of Indonesia, 2009). Indonesia was classified as a lower-middle-income country during the global estimation period. There were 19.4% of child labor in lowincome countries (2015 Gross National Income per capita USD1,045 or less), 8.5% in lower-middle-income countries (2015 GNI per capita USD1,046-4,125), 6.6% in uppermiddle-income countries (2015 GNI per capita USD4,126- 12,735), and 1.2% in high-income countries (2015 GNI per capita USD12,736+). Meanwhile, the percentage of global child labor, according to ILO estimates, was 9.6%, but varies in different countries. Criteria for hazardous work are work that physically, sexually and psychologically abuses children, works with dangerous equipment, substances, processes and place, and works too long (ILO, 1999). Of concern, there were 72 million of these children doing dangerous work for themselves and their future (ILO, 2017). The International Labor Organization (ILO) estimated that over the 2012-2016 period, there were 218 million working children globally, 152 million of whom were child workers. In fact, there are still many children who have to work to earn money to support themselves or their families, thus sacrificing their childhood rights. Childhood is filled with learning, playing, and getting to know new things without having to be burdened with responsibilities as adults. Thus, children must be properly cared for so that they can grow with a good of life, physically, mentally, and spiritually. Finally, the quality of education and its services ought to be further enhanced to attract more child student participation rates across junior high schools nationwide.Ĭhildren today are the nation’s leaders of the future. The wages should be continuously improved, at least, in par with the changes in prices. The findings of this study suggest that, in efforts to reduce the involvement of children in the workforce, the poverty eradication program should be enhanced. Finally, the quality of education services is found to have a negative effect on child labor in Indonesia. Similarly, the participation in the education system also contributed negatively to the child labor. Conversely, the study documented the adverse impact of average wages on child labor in Indonesia. Using a multiple regression analysis, the study found strong evidence of the positive effect of poverty on child labor. This study utilized an aggregate data of 301 districts and cities across 34 provinces sourced from the National Labor Force Survey and the National School/Madrasah Accreditation Board of the Republic of Indonesia.
Factors identified include rate of poverty, average wages, education participation, and quality of education. This study contributes to the existing literature by empirically exploring the causes of child labor in the Indonesian labor market.
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